Skip to Content
Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Writing programs

Overview

  • Influence: Writing programs
  • Domain: Curricula
  • Sub-Domain: Reading, writing and the arts
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Potential to accelerate
  • Influence Definition: Programs to enhance students' writing proficiencies.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 22
  • Number of studies: 1,324
  • Number of students: 179,467
  • Number of effects: 5,096
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.51
  • Robustness index: 5

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
American Journal of Education Hillocks What works in teaching composition: A meta-analysis of experimental treatment studies 1984 Teaching writing 60 11,705 73 0.28
Dissertation Atkinson A Meta-Analysis of Recent Research in the Teaching of Writing: Workshops, Computer Applications, and Inquiry 1993 Writing projects 20 NA 55 0.40
The Elementary School Journal Gersten & Baker Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis 2001 Expressive writing 13 NA 13 0.81
Review of Educational Research Bangert-Drowns, Hurley & Wilkinson The effects of school-based writing-to-learn interventions on academic achievement: A meta-analysis 2004 School-based writing to learn interventions 46 5,416 46 0.26
Journal of Educational Psychology Graham & Perin A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students 2007 Writing programs 123 14,068 154 0.43
Educational Psychology Review Santangelo & Graham A comprehensive meta-analysis of handwriting instruction 2016 Teaching handwriting on writing 25 1,811 25 0.59
Review of Educational Research Kent & Wanzek The relationship between component skills and writing quality and production across developmental levels: A meta-analysis of the last 25 years 2016 Writing programs 38 NA 346 0.40
Exceptional Children Gillespie & Graham A meta-analysis of writing interventions for students with learning disabilities 2014 Writing programs on LD 43 2,139 43 0.74
Review of Educational Research Graham, Liu, Aitken, Bartlett, Harris, & Holzapfel Reading for writing: A meta-analysis of the impact of reading interventions on writing 2018 Writing & reading taught together 52 5,018 52 0.57
The Journal of Educational Research Graham & Sandmel The process writing approach: A meta-analysis 2011 Process writing 29 8,150 29 0.34
Journal of Educational Psychology Graham, McKeown, Kiuhara & Harris A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades 2012 Teaching writing 115 NA 184 0.59
Reading and Writing Morphy & Graham Word processing programs and weaker writers/readers: A meta-analysis of research findings 2012 Word processing programs on writers/readers 27 NA 77 0.52
Book Graham, Harris, & McKeown The writing of students with LD and a meta-analysis of SRSD writing intervention studies: Redux 2013 SRSD program 23 NA 61 1.58
Journal of writing research Koster, Tribushinina, de Jong, & van den Bergh Teaching children to write: A meta-analysis of writing intervention research 2015 Writing interventions 32 9,655 53 0.72
Book Santangelo, Harris, & Graham Self-Regulation and Writing: An Overview and Meta-Analysis 2016 Self-regulation processes on writing 78 8,104 87 0.76
Review of Educational Research Graham, Kiuhara, & MacKay The Effects of Writing on Learning in Science, Social Studies, and Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis 2020 Writing on science, social studies, math 56 NA 56 0.30
Clinical psychology review Travagin, Margola, & Revenson How effective are expressive writing interventions for adolescents? A meta-analytic review.  2015 Expressive writing programs 21 NA 21 0.13
Frontiers in Psychology Lopez-Escribano, Martin-Babarro, & Perez-Lopez Promoting handwriting fluency for preschool and elementary age students: Meta-analysis and meta-synthesis of research from 2000 to 2020. 2022 Handwriting fluency on writing 31 2,030 31 0.66
Journal of Educational Psychology Graham, Kim, Cao, Lee, Tate, Collins, Cho, Moon, Chung, & Olson A meta-analysis of writing treatments for students in grades 6–12. 2023 Writing programs on writing 406 52,529 3,321 0.49
Journal of Educational Psychology Graham, Kim, Cao, Lee, Tate, Collins, Cho, Moon, Chung, & Olson A meta-analysis of writing treatments for students in grades 6–12. 2023 Writing programs on reading 52 52,529 193 0.22
Educational Research Review Young-Suk, Yang, Reyes, & Connor Writing instruction improves students' writing skills differentially depending on focal instruction and children: A meta-analysis for primary grade students. 2021 Writing programs on writing 24 5,589 166 0.31
Research in Mathematical Education Bae & Sahin A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effectiveness of the Science Writing Heuristic Approach on Academic Achievement in Turkey.  2021 Science writing on achievement 10 724 10 1.07
TOTAL/AVERAGE 1,324 179,467 5,096 0.55
Back to top