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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Teacher performance pay

Overview

  • Influence: Teacher performance pay
  • Domain: School
  • Sub-Domain: School resourcing
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have a negative impact
  • Influence Definition: When teacher pay is tied to some measure of the performance outcomes of their students (sometimes called merit pay).

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 2
  • Number of studies: 62
  • Number of students: NA
  • Number of effects: 269
  • Weighted mean effect size: -0.02
  • Robustness index: 2

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
American Educational Research Journal Pham, Nguyen & Springer Teacher merit pay: A meta-analysis. 2021 Merit pay on student performance 37 NA 244 0.05
Report Fitzpatrick, Brehm, Burns, & Renbarger Design Characteristics of Effective US Teacher Pay-for-Performance: Implications from Meta-Analysis 2024 Merit pay bonus amount 25 NA 25 -0.12
TOTAL/AVERAGE 62 NA 269 -0.03
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