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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Teacher expectations

Overview

  • Influence: Teacher expectations
  • Domain: Teacher
  • Sub-Domain: Teacher attributes
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have positive impact
  • Influence Definition: The expectations about student performance held by teachers. These can be accurate or effected by biases (social background, gender, culture), but more often teachers hold either low, medium or high expectations for all their students.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 8
  • Number of studies: 560
  • Number of students: 2,382
  • Number of effects: 680
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.53
  • Robustness index: 4

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Behavioral and Brain Sciences Rosenthal & Rubin Interpersonal expectancy effects: The first 345 studies 1978 Teacher expectations 345 NA 345 0.70
Evaluation in Education Smith Teacher expectations 1980 Teacher expectations 44 NA 149 0.38
Journal of Educational Psychology Dusek & Joseph The bases of teacher expectancies: A meta-analysis 1983 Teacher expectations 79 NA 79 0.16
Journal of Educational Psychology Raudenbush Magnitude of teacher expectancy effects on pupil IQ as a function of the credibility of expectancy induction: A synthesis of findings from 18 experiments 1984 Teacher expectations 18 NA 33 0.11
Psychological Bulletin Harris & Rosenthal Mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects: 31 meta-analyses 1985 Teacher expectations 12 2,382 12 0.41
Journal of Educational Psychology Tenebaum & Ruck Are teachers' expectations different for racial minority than for European American students? A meta-analysis 2007 Teacher expectations 39 NA 39 0.23
Educational Research and Evaluation de Boer, Timmermans, & van der Werf The effects of teacher expectation interventions on teachers' expectations and student achievement; Narrative review and meta-analysis. 2018 Teacher expectations 10 NA 10 0.30
Psycho-Educational Research Reviews Ates & Ünal The Relationship between Teacher Academic Optimism and Student Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis. 2021 Teacher optimism 13 NA 13 0.51
TOTAL/AVERAGE 560 2,382 680 0.35
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