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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Surface motivation and approach

Overview

  • Influence: Surface motivation and approach
  • Domain: Student
  • Sub-Domain: Motivational approach/orientation
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have a negative impact
  • Influence Definition: A student's surface motivations includes completing the work (irrespective of quality), doing as good as peers, focusing on facts, passing the test.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 4
  • Number of studies: 447
  • Number of students: 119,140
  • Number of effects: 452
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.00
  • Robustness index: 3

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Australian Journal of Education Purdie & Hattie The Relationship Between Study Skills and Learning Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis 1999 Surface approach 101 NA 101 0.10
Psychological bulletin Hulleman, Schrager, Bodmann & Harackiewicz A Meta-Analytic Review of Achievement Goal Measures: Different Labels for the Same Constructs or Different Constructs with Similar Labels? 2010 Approach goals on achievement 243 91,087 243 0.12
Perspectives on Thinking, Learning and Cognitive Styles Watkins Correlates of Approaches to Learning: A Cross-Cultural Meta-Analysis 2001 Surface motivation 55 28,053 60 -0.22
Australian Journal of Education Purdie & Hattie The Relationship between Study Skills and Learning Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis 1999 Surface motivation 48 NA 48 -0.54
TOTAL/AVERAGE 447 119,140 452 -0.13
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