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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Spatial skills / training

Overview

  • Influence: Spatial skills / training
  • Domain: Curricula
  • Sub-Domain: Other curricula programs
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Potential to considerably accelerate
  • Influence Definition: Spatial skills refer to the cognitive processing of spatial information, which concerns shapes, locations, paths, relations among entities and relations between entities and frames of reference

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 2
  • Number of studies: 49
  • Number of students: 3,765
  • Number of effects: 109
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.56
  • Robustness index: 2

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Developmental Psychology Hawes Effects of spatial training on mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.  2022 Spatial training on math 29 3,765 89 0.28
Frontiers in Psychology Yang, Liu, Chen, Xu, & Lin Is early spatial skills training effective? A Meta-analysis 2020 Spatial skills on achievement 20 NA 20 0.96
TOTAL/AVERAGE 49 3,765 109 0.62
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