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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Questioning

Overview

  • Influence: Questioning
  • Domain: Teaching Strategies
  • Sub-Domain: Feedback
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Potential to accelerate
  • Influence Definition: The deliberate use of questions to engage students, assess understanding, stimulate critical thinking, and encourage active participation in the learning process.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 9
  • Number of studies: 270
  • Number of students: 409
  • Number of effects: 330
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.49
  • Robustness index: 3

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Review of Educational Research Redfield & Rousseau A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Research on Teacher Questioning Behavior 1981 Teacher questioning 14 NA 14 0.73
Dissertation Lyday A Meta-Analysis of the Adjunct Question Literature 1983 Adjunct questions 65 NA 65 0.57
Review of Educational Research Hamaker The Effects of Adjunct Questions on Prose Learning 1986 Factual adjunct questions 61 NA 121 0.13
Journal of Educational Research Samson, Strykowski, Weinstein, & Walberg The Effects of Teacher Questioning Levels on Student Achievement: A Quantitative Synthesis 1987 Teacher questioning 14 NA 14 0.26
Review of Educational Research Gliessman, Pugh, Dowden, & Hutchins Variables Influencing the Acquisition of a Generic Teaching Skill 1988 Teacher questioning 26 NA 26 0.82
Book Gayle, Preiss, & Allen How Effective Are Teacher-Initiated Classroom Questions in Enhancing Student Learning? 2006 Teacher questioning 13 NA 13 0.31
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions Randolph Meta--Analysis of the Research on Response Cards: Effects on Test Achievement, Quiz Achievement, Participation, and Off-Task Behavior 2007 Response cards to questioning 18 NA 18 0.38
Remedial and Special Education Berkeley, Scruggs & Mastropieri Reading comprehension instruction for students with learning disabilities, 1995–2006: A meta-analysis 2009 Questioning/strategy instruction in reading 30 NA 30 0.68
Journal of Behavioral Education Marsh, Cummin Randolph, & Michaels Updated Meta-Analysis of the Research on Response Cards. 2021 Response cards to questioning 29 409 29 0.73
TOTAL/AVERAGE 270 409 330 0.51
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