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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Online and digital tools

Overview

  • Influence: Online and digital tools
  • Domain: Technology, School, and Out-of-School Strategies
  • Sub-Domain: Online and digital
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have positive impact
  • Influence Definition: These include word processing apps, slide presentation software, electronic reference materials, tablet and cell phones apps.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 12
  • Number of studies: 502
  • Number of students: 110,484
  • Number of effects: 1,444
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.36
  • Robustness index: 4

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Journal of Literacy Research Moran, Ferdig, Pearson, Wardrop & Blomeyer Technology and Reading Performance in the Middle-School Grades: A Meta-Analysis with Recommendations for Policy and Practice 2008 Digital tools on learning 20 NA 89 0.49
Report Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, Jones Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies 2009 Online learning on students 51 NA 51 0.24
Journal of Educational Computing Research Zucker, Moody & McKenna The Effects of Electronic Books on Pre-Kindergarten-to-Grade 5 Students' Literacy and Language Outcomes: A Research Synthesis 2009 e-books on achievement 7 401 7 0.41
Journal of Educational Computing Research Schroeder, Adesope, & Gilbert How Effective are Pedagogical Agents for Learning? A Meta-Analytic Review 2013 Pedagogical agents on screen 43 3,088 43 0.19
Journal of Educational Computing Research Guo & Goh Affect in Embodied Pedagogical Agents: Meta-Analytic Review 2015 Pedagogical agents on screen 30 2,150 30 0.61
Asia-Pacific Education Researcher Jang, Yi, & Shin Examining the effectiveness of digital textbook use on students' learning outcomes in South Korea: A meta-analysis 2016 Digital textbooks 26 NA 625 0.34
American Journal of Distance Education Darabi, Liang, Suryavanshi & Yurekli Effectiveness of online discussion strategies: A meta-analysis 2013 Online discussions 72 NA 72 0.23
Report Cheung & Slavin The Effectiveness of Education Technology for Enhancing Reading Achievement: A Meta-Analysis. 2011 Ed technology 85 60,721 85 0.16
Computers and Education Hillmayr, Ziernwald, Reinhold, Hofer, & Reiss The potential of digital tools to enhance mathematics and science learning in secondary schools: A context specific meta-analysis. 2020 Digital tools on learning 92 14,910 117 0.65
AERA Open Kim, Gilbert, Yu, & Gale Measures Matter: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Educational Apps on Preschool to Grade 3 Children's Literacy and Math Skills. 2021 Educational apps on literacy and math 36 5,632 285 0.31
Journal Of Psychology and Instruction Ardhiani, Hadjam, & Fitriani Digital literacy and student academic performance in universities: A meta-analysis.  2023 digital literacy 15 7,082 15 0.31
Conference paper Berkeley Improving comprehension with digital text: A meta-analysis of interventions. 2015 Instructional enhancement interventions 25 16,500 25 0.60
TOTAL/AVERAGE 502 110,484 1,444 0.38
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