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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Fitness

Overview

  • Influence: Fitness
  • Domain: Student
  • Sub-Domain: Physical influences
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have positive impact
  • Influence Definition: The level of physical fitness of the student

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 16
  • Number of studies: 616
  • Number of students: 220,190
  • Number of effects: 2,531
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.23
  • Robustness index: 5

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology Etnier, Salazar, Landers, Petruzzelo, Han, & Nowell The influence of physical fitness and exercise upon cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis 1997 Physical fitness & exercise 134 NA 1,260 0.25
Brain Research Etnier, Nowell, Landers, & Sibley A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance 2006 Aerobic fitness and cognitive performance 37 1,306 571 0.34
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine Hattie & Clinton Physical activity is not related to performance at school 2012 Physical activity on achievement 13 NA 80 0.03
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity Watson, Timperio, Brown, Best, & Hesketh Effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on academic and physical activity outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis 2017 Physical activity on achievement 10 2,076 10 0.28
British Journal of Sports Medicine Verburgh, Lonigs, Scherder, & Oosterlaan Physical activity and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: A meta-analysis 2014 Physical activity on executive functioning 19 586 19 0.52
Brain Research Chang, Labbam, Gapin & Etnier The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis 2012 Physical activity on achievement 79 NA 79 0.10
Pediatric Exercise Science Sibley & Etnier The effects of physical activity on cognition in children 2003 Physical activity on achievement 36 NA 104 0.36
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Fedewa & Ahn The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on children's achievement and cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis 2011 Physical activity on achievement 59 28,314 195 0.32
British Journal of Sports Medicine Norris, van Steen, Direito, & Stamatakis Physically active lessons in schools: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effects on physical activity, educational, health and cognition outcomes. 2020 Physical activity on educational outcomes 25 3,214 25 0.36
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport de Greeff, Bosker, Oosterlaan, Visscher, & Hartman Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis 2018 Physical activity on achievement 31 941 5 0.09
Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology Jackson, Davis, Sands, Whittington, & Sun Physical activity and cognitive development: a meta-analysis 2016 Physical activity on cognition 8 770 8 0.20
Public Heath He, Chen, Fan, Cai, & Huang Is there a relationship between body mass index and academic achievement? A meta-analysis. 2019 BMI on achievement (thus reversed for fitness) 60 164,049 60 0.22
Korean Journal of Sport Psychology Cho & Kim The impact of school-based physical education on students' intelligence and academic achievement: A meta-analysis. 2012 School physical ed on achievement 20 NA 30 0.11
Journal of Sports Sciences Alverez-Bueno, Hillman, Cavero-Redondo, & Vizcaino Aerobic fitness and academic achievement: A systematic review and meta-analysis 2020 Aerobic fitness and achievement 48 NA 48 0.26
Conference paper Prabandari, Soemanto, & Widyaningsih The effect of physical activity on the academic achievement in primary school students: Meta-analysis. 2020 Physical activity 6 NA 6 0.20
Education Sciences Loturco, Montoya, Ferraz, Berbat, & Pereira A systematic review of the effects of physical activity on specific academic skills of school students. 2022 Fitness on achievement 31 18,934 31 0.09
TOTAL/AVERAGE 616 220,190 2,531 0.23
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