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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Feedback (Corrective, reinforcement & cues)

Overview

  • Influence: Feedback (Corrective, reinforcement & cues)
  • Domain: Teaching Strategies
  • Sub-Domain: Feedback
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Potential to considerably accelerate
  • Influence Definition: Feedback in terms of reinforcement (positive and negative) and cues to advance to next steps in learning

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 6
  • Number of studies: 164
  • Number of students: 21,547
  • Number of effects: 267
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.92
  • Robustness index: 3

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Journal of Research and Development in Education Tenenbaum & Goldring A meta-analysis of the effect of enhanced instruction: Cues, participation, reinforcement and feedback and correctives on motor skill learning 1989 Cues, and reinforcement 15 522 15 0.72
American Educational Research Journal Lysakowski & Walberg Instructional effects of cues, participation, and corrective feedback: a quantitative synthesis 1982 Cues, participation and corrective feedback 54 15,689 94 0.97
Evaluation in Education Lysakowski & Walberg Classroom reinforcement 1980 Classroom reinforcement 39 4,842 102 1.17
Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education Schenck Using meta-analysis of technique and timing to optimize corrective feedback for specific grammatical features. A 2022 Corrective feedback on learning 15 NA 15 1.28
Tesl-Ej Lim & Renandya Efficacy of written corrective feedback in writing instruction: A meta-analysis.  2020 Corrective feedback on writing 35 NA 35 0.59
Conference paper Gramling The effects of corrective feedback during STEM learning experiences with elementary students: A meta-analysis. 2016 Corrective feedback on learning 6 494 6 0.47
TOTAL/AVERAGE 164 21,547 267 0.87
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