Skip to Content
Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Family structure

Overview

  • Influence: Family structure
  • Domain: Home
  • Sub-Domain: Family structure
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have a small positive impact
  • Influence Definition: Families can include one, two, or more parents (in some cultures, children are brought up in multiple family situations), LGBTQ+ parents, and parents who work or stay at home with their children. There may also be alternative guardians such as siblings, immediate relatives or adoptive families.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 5
  • Number of studies: 200
  • Number of students: 45,008
  • Number of effects: 184
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.14
  • Robustness index: 3

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Psychological Bulletin Falbo & Polit Quantitative review of the only child literature: Research evidence and theory development 1986 Only vs. non-only children 115 NA 115 0.17
Psychological Bulletin Murray, Farrington, & Sekol Children's antisocial behavior, mental health, drug use, and educational performance after parental incarceration: a systematic review and meta-analysis 2012 Incarcerated parents 40 44,699 40 0.08
Journal of Homosexuality Allen & Burrell Comparing the Impact of Homosexual and Heterosexual Parents on Children 1997 Heterosexual vs. Homosexual parents 4 309 4 0.00
Journal of GLBT Family Studies Crowl, Ahn, & Baker A meta-analysis of developmental outcomes for children of same-sex and heterosexual parents 2008 Same sex parents 19 NA 3 0.15
Journal of Marriage and Family Pong, Dronkers, Hampden-Thompson Family Policies and Children's School Achievement in Single- Versus Two-Parent Families 2003 Two parent vs. single family on math and science 22 NA 22 0.13
TOTAL/AVERAGE 200 45,008 184 0.11
Back to top