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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Use of calculators

Overview

  • Influence: Use of calculators
  • Domain: Curricula
  • Sub-Domain: Math and sciences
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have positive impact
  • Influence Definition: The use of electronic methods for completing calculations in mathematics.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 6
  • Number of studies: 238
  • Number of students: NA
  • Number of effects: 1,100
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.25
  • Robustness index: 3

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education Hembree & Dessart Effects of hand-held calculators in precollege mathematics education: A meta-analysis 1986 Use of calculators in pre-college students 79 NA 524 0.14
Dissertation Smith A meta-analysis of outcomes from the use of calculators in mathematics education. 1996 Use of calculators 24 NA 54 0.25
Dissertation Ellington Effects of hand-held calculators on precollege students in mathematics classes: A meta-analysis. 2000 Use of calculators in pre-college students 53 NA 305 0.28
Journal of Special Education Technology Fuchs & Fuchs The relation between methods of graphing student performance data and achievement: A meta-analysis. 1986 Use of graphing paper 16 NA 17 0.46
Dissertation Nikolaou Hand-held calculator use and achievement in mathematics: a meta-analysis 2001 Use of calculators on problem solving 24 NA 103 0.49
School Science and Mathematics Ellington The Effects of Non-CAS Graphing Calculators on Student Achievement and Attitude Levels in Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis 2006 Use of Non-CAS Graphing calculators 42 NA 97 0.19
TOTAL/AVERAGE 238 NA 1,100 0.30
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