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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Retention

Overview

  • Influence: Retention
  • Domain: Classroom
  • Sub-Domain: Classroom climate
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have a negative impact
  • Influence Definition: The practice of retaining a student in a single grade-level in the next academic year because she or he has been prevented from making adequate progress.

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 10
  • Number of studies: 339
  • Number of students: 27,408
  • Number of effects: 4,456
  • Weighted mean effect size: -0.24
  • Robustness index: 4

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Journal of Research and Development in Education Holmes The Fourth R: Retention. 1983 Retained vs. non-retained 7 NA 527 -0.42
Review of Educational Research Holmes & Matthews The Effects of Nonpromotion on Elementary and Junior High School Pupils: A Meta-Analysis 1984 Retention on all students on elementary students 44 11,132 575 -0.37
Conference paper Holmes A synthesis of recent research on nonpromotion: A five year follow-up. 1986 Retained vs. non-retained 17 NA 217 -0.06
Research and policies on retention Holmes Grade Level Retention Effects: A Meta-Analysis of Research Studies 1989 Retention on all students 63 NA 861 -0.15
Dissertation Yoshida A meta-analysis of the effects of grade retention on the achievement of elementary school children. 1989 Retention on elementary students 34 NA 242 -0.38
Conference paper Drany & Wilson The impact of design characteristics on study outcomes in retention research: a meta-analytic perspective 1992 Retained vs. non retained within same year 22 NA 78 -0.66
California School Psychologist Jimerson A synthesis of grade retention research: Looking backward and moving forward. 2001 Retained vs. non-retained 20 2,806 175 -0.39
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis Allen, Chen, Willson, & Hughes Quality of Research Design Moderates Effects of Grade Retention on Achievement: A Meta-Analytic, Multilevel Analysis 2009 High quality studies on retention 22 13,470 207 0.04
Dissertation Bright A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Grade Retention of K-6 Students on Student Achievement, 1990-2010 2011 Retained vs non-retained 26 NA 245 -0.50
Educational Research Review Goos, Pipa, & Peixoto Effectiveness of grade retention: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2021 Retention on all students 84 NA 1,329 -0.04
TOTAL/AVERAGE 339 27,408 4,456 -0.29
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