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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Programmed instruction

Overview

  • Influence: Programmed instruction
  • Domain: Technology, School, and Out-of-School Strategies
  • Sub-Domain: Other ICT
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have positive impact
  • Influence Definition: A mode of instruction that provides students with multiple steps with immediate feedback and enables them to work independently, at their own pace, through a graded sequence of controlled steps After each step, the students test their comprehension by answering an examination question or then they are directed to relearning or to a more difficult concept

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 7
  • Number of studies: 437
  • Number of students: NA
  • Number of effects: 335
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.24
  • Robustness index: 3

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Dissertation Hartley Meta-analysis of the effects of individually paced instruction in mathematics 1977 PI in mathematics 40 NA 81 0.11
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis Kulik, Cohen, & Ebeling Effectiveness of programmed instruction in higher education: A meta-analysis of findings 1980 PI with college students 57 NA 57 0.24
Journal of Educational Research Kulik, Schwalb, & Kulik Programmed Instruction in Secondary Education: A Meta-Analysis of Evaluation Finding 1982 PI in high schools 47 NA 47 0.08
Journal of Research in Science Teaching Willett, Yamashita & Anderson A meta-analysis of instructional systems applied in science teaching 1983 PI in science 130 NA 52 0.17
Educational Technology Research and Development Schwalb, Schwalb, & Azuma Educational Technology in the Japanese Schools: A Meta-Analysis of Findings 1986 PI in Japan 104 NA 39 0.43
Dissertation Mitchell A comparison of the effectiveness of innovative instructional methods utilized in lower division mathematics as measured by student achievement: a meta-analysis of findings 1987 PI in mathematics 29 NA 29 0.15
Conference paper Boden, Archwamety, & MacFarland Programmed Instruction in Secondary Education: A meta-Analysis of the Impact of Class Sizes on its Effectiveness 2000 PI in high schools 30 NA 30 0.40
TOTAL/AVERAGE 437 NA 335 0.23
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