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Visible Learning™
Visible Learning MetaX™
Version 1.4 – Updated February 2026

Competitive vs. individualistic learning

Overview

  • Influence: Competitive vs. individualistic learning
  • Domain: Teaching Strategies
  • Sub-Domain: Instructional strategies
  • Potential to Accelerate Student Achievement: Likely to have positive impact
  • Influence Definition: Programs comparing competitive scenarios compared to allowing students to work independently

Evidence

  • Number of meta-analyses: 4
  • Number of studies: 831
  • Number of students: NA
  • Number of effects: 203
  • Weighted mean effect size: 0.24
  • Robustness index: 3

Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses
Journal Title Author Article Name Year Published Variable Number of Studies Number of Students Number of Effects Effect Size
Psychological Bulletin Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon Effects of Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Goal Structures on Achievement: A Meta-Analysis 1981 Competitive learning 122 NA 163 0.09
Review of Educational Research Johnson, Johnson, & Murayama Interdependence and interpersonal attraction among heterogeneous and homogeneous individuals: a theoretical formulation and a meta-analysis of the research 1983 Competitive vs. individualistic 98 NA 16 0.45
Book Johnson & Johnson Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning 1987 Competitive vs. individualistic 453 NA 12 0.36
Report Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne Cooperative learning methods: a meta-analysis 2000 Competitive vs. individualistic 158 NA 12 -0.12
TOTAL/AVERAGE 831 NA 203 0.20
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